{"id":3043,"date":"2024-06-26T18:43:12","date_gmt":"2024-06-26T16:43:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.rivistaeco.com\/?p=3043"},"modified":"2024-06-26T18:43:12","modified_gmt":"2024-06-26T16:43:12","slug":"depressed-youth","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.rivistaeco.com\/en\/2024\/06\/26\/depressed-youth\/","title":{"rendered":"Depressed Youth"},"content":{"rendered":"

A wave of ill-being seems to be sweeping young people. This is evidenced by surveys and data from both developed and developing countries, from East to West. In the past crises came with middle age; now they affect young people under 25. This phenomenon began in 2011 and coincides with the rapid development of smartphones.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

What is the shape of happiness? According to the results of at least 600 published papers, happiness follows a U-shaped curve throughout our lives: it is high when we are young, decreases when we grow up, reaches a low point, and then rises again in old age. Conversely, unhappiness is hump-shaped: first rising and then decreasing with age. Evidence of a mid-life crisis around age 50 was found in 146 countries over the period 1973-2018. This mid-life low point depends neither on the data used nor on the different metrics of well-being employed.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Life satisfaction, financial satisfaction, worthwhileness, and happiness all have an age-related U-shaped pattern.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Is the mid-life crisis a thing of the past?<\/b><\/h3>\n

The mirror image of the U-shape in well-being is a hump-shape in ill-being: worry, stress and depression peak around age 50. Peak ill-being in mid-life coincides with \u201cdeaths of despair\u201d, i.e. deaths caused by suicide, drug overdose and alcohol poisoning, as well as psychiatric admissions and the taking of antidepressants. The trend in these deaths has a robust association with these ill-being markers – unhappiness, sadness and stress – which increase in middle age and drive up the overall mortality rate.<\/span><\/p>\n

The link between age and happiness (or unhappiness) has been identified using data on people\u2019s well-being over time. And the relationship was apparent in multiple cohorts.<\/span><\/p>\n

These trends have been linked to changes in what people expect from life over time or set points against which individuals calibrate how their life is unfolding. The U-shape and hump-shape have also been found in apes, which are biologically close to humans, leading some to speculate that the life course of well-being is linked to psychological traits common to primates.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

That was then. And now everything has changed. The hump-shapes and U-shapes in age have disappeared into the ether. Globally, unhappiness now declines with age, and happiness now rises with age. Little is known yet about the reasons that have disrupted the traditional relationship between age and happiness\/unhappiness. A possible culprit is smartphones and social media, and we will return to this topic. For now, let us focus on the data.<\/span><\/p>\n

What changed between 1993 and 2022<\/b><\/p>\n

Figure 1 plots trends in despair by age group and gender in the United States from 1993 to 2022 using the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) surveys. Looking at the question \u201cNow, thinking about your mental health, which includes stress, depression and problems with emotions, for how many days during the past 30 days was your mental health not good?\u201d, from 2020 to 2022, on average 57.6% of BRFSS survey respondents indicated zero days, while 7% reported exactly thirty days. But what is noteworthy is that the incidence of despair has nearly doubled: from 3.7% in 1993 to 7% in 2022.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 1 – Despair by age in the US (1993-2022)<\/b>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"
Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Studies on \u201cdeaths of despair\u201d in the United States have identified whites aged 35-54 with a high school diploma or less as the most at-risk group. <\/span>Figure 1<\/span> shows that, while this group\u2019s levels of despair remain high, since 2014 the rate of despair has risen more rapidly among young people, particularly women under 25. By the end of the period considered, their despair levels are comparable to those of the 35-54 age group with low education levels, which was the focus of Anne Case and Angus Deaton\u2019s research in their 2020 book <\/span>Deaths of despair and the future of capitalism<\/span><\/i>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Between 2007 and 2022, the number of college students reporting feeling down, depressed, or hopeless for more than half the days over the prior two weeks also rose rapidly: from 12% to 20% for males and from 14% to 28% for females, respectively.<\/span><\/p>\n

Recent survey data thus confirm that the relationship between age and ill-being has changed, and the hump-shaped curve has disappeared, as shown by the orange line in <\/span>Figure 2a<\/span> for women and <\/span>Figure 2b<\/span> for men. Despair increased the most for the youngest group and for the group up to age 45; after age 45, it remained unchanged.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 2a \u2013Females age profile in despair in the US<\/b><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"\"
Source: Blanchflower and Bryson (2024a).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Figure 2b -Males age profile in despair in the US<\/b><\/p>\n

\"\"
Source: Blanchflower and Bryson (2024a).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Levels of despair are higher among young women compared to young men: in 2022, 10.5% of women under age 25 reported being in despair compared with 7.5% of young males. Similar results can be found for anxiety, which decreases with age and is higher in every age group for women than for men.<\/span><\/p>\n

The same change applies to the U-shaped trend in happiness. Using BRFSS data on life satisfaction, <\/span>Figure 3<\/span> shows data from 2005-2018 and 2022. In the first period, life satisfaction declines through age 22 before rising through age 32 and then falling back, giving a U-shape with the usual low point seen in the early 50s. In 2022, the plot looks entirely different, with happiness increasing with age.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 3 – Life satisfaction in the US (period 2005-2022)<\/b><\/p>\n

\"\"
Note: The figure is based on responses to the question: \u201cIn general, how satisfied are you with your life? Very dissatisfied=1; Dissatisfied=2; Satisfied=3; Very satisfied=4\u201d. Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

A global trend<\/b><\/h3>\n

Are these trends only an American phenomenon? The answer is no. <\/span>Figure 4<\/span> shows similar evidence for the United Kingdom. In our recent paper with Xiaowei Xu (<\/span>The declining mental health of the young and the global disappearance of the hump shape in age in unhappiness<\/span><\/i>), we used data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, which includes a mental health index. In 2009-2010 approximately, 8% of respondents were classed as being in despair, rising to 12% in 2020-2021. Once again, the hump shape in ill-being by age, which is notable in the earlier period 2009-2018, has disappeared in the later period 2019-2021, to be replace by a profile in despair that is declining in age, given the sharp increase among younger people. The same trends are found in a survey conducted by the University of Luxembourg in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden from 2020 to 2022 <\/span>(Figure 5)<\/span>. Again, despair decreases with age and life satisfaction increases with age in all five countries, both jointly and separately.<\/span><\/p>\n

This phenomenon is not limited to the United States and Europe, it is global, affecting developed and developing countries: ill-being declines with age essentially everywhere.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 4 – Age profile in despair in the UK<\/b><\/p>\n

\"\"
Source: Blanchflower, Bryson and Xu (2024).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Figure 5 – Depression and life satisfaction in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden (2020-2022)<\/b><\/p>\n

\"\"
Note: The PHQ (Patient Health Quetionnaire) depression total score is the sum of nine variables, with each subcomponent coded from 0 to 3. Life satisfaction is calculated on responses to the question \u201cOverall, in the past week, how satisfied have you been with your life?\u201d using a standard 10-point Likert scale from 0=not at all to 10=completely. Source: University of Luxembourg survey.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

What causes such ill-being?<\/b><\/h3>\n

At this point, it is necessary to ask what explains the rise in ill-being that seems to have started in 2011, is mainly found among young people, and appears to be a global phenomenon. Jonathan Haidt in his <\/span>The Anxious Generation. How the Great Rewiring of Childhood is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness<\/span><\/i>, argued that this rise is likely related to rewiring, suggesting a potential change in our brain\u2019s neural networks due to the increased use of internet and smartphones.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Using data from the US Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, we showed in a recent study that between 1999 and 2021 there has been a rapid increase in screen time among high school students. The percentage of young women reporting four or more hours a day of screen time rose from 16% in 2011 to 61% in 2021; for young men, it grew from 16% to 53%. Over the same period, the proportion of female students reporting feeling sad or hopeless every day in the two weeks prior to the survey increased from 36% in 2011 to 57% in 2021, while for young men, it rose from 21% to 29%. European data also suggest that depression and anxiety are correlated with screen time.<\/span><\/p>\n

What are the potential consequences of the increase in ill-being among young people? The concern is that they could be very serious. For example, male suicide rates are rising in the United States. The negative repercussions are also suggested by our study on the long-term effects of childhood bullying (<\/span>The adult consequences of being bullied in childhood<\/span><\/i>). Our data show that being bullied negatively affects subjective well-being from ages 16 to 62, reduces the likelihood of having a job in adulthood, and increases the risk of dying before age 55.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

The wave of ill-being among young people, which is global in nature and has changed the long-standing age-related patterns of happiness and unhappiness, must be monitored carefully. Excessive online time has been suggested as a possible culprit. Now solutions need to be considered, before it is too late.<\/span><\/p>\n

Bio\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n

David Blanchflower <\/strong>is Professor of Economics at Dartmouth College and the University of Glasgow. He is a research associate at the NBER and an advisor to the United Nations on well-being.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n

Alex Bryson<\/strong> is Professor of Quantitative Social Science at University College London. His research focuses on labour economics, industrial relations, and programme evaluation<\/em>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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